Khama la atomu ndi mamolekyulu. Tanthauzo la atomu mpaka 1932

Kuyambira nthawi zakale pakati pa zaka za m'ma 18, sayansi kunalamulidwa ndi maganizo akuti atomu - ndi tinthu wa nkhani sindiyenera kukhala wogawanika. English wasayansi ndi zachilengedwe, ndi D. Dalton anapereka tanthauzo la atomu monga gawo laling'ono la chinthu mankhwala. MV Lomonosov mu chiphunzitso chake atomiki ndi maselo anatha kupereka tanthauzo la atomu ndi molekyulu. Iye ankakhulupirira kuti molekyulu, amene adayitana "corpuscles" lopangidwa "zinthu" - maatomu - ndipo zoyenda zonse.

D. I. Mendeleev ankakhulupirira kuti kagawo kakang'ono ichi zinthu zimene zimapanga dziko chuma, lofotokozabe ake katundu zonse pokhapokha ngati si nkhani magawano. M'nkhaniyi, ife chimatanthauza chinthu monga microcosm la atomu, ndi kuphunzira katundu wake.

Maziko a chiphunzitso cha dongosolo atomiki

M'zaka za m'ma 19, anthu ambiri anazindikira kuti mawu a pa indivisibility wa maatomu. asayansi ambiri ankakhulupirira kuti particles wa munthu mchitidwe mankhwala zivute zitani sangathe lidzasinthidwa maatomu a zinthu zina. malingaliro awa anali maziko a inachokera tanthauzo la atomu mpaka 1932. M'zaka za m'ma 19 mochedwa mu sayansi akhala apeza zinthu zimene zimachititsa kuti zinthu zasintha maganizo amenewa. Choyamba, mu 1897 a sayansi British J. J. Thomson anapeza elekitironi. Zimenezi thunthu anasintha maganizo asayansi 'mbali indivisible wa zinthu mankhwala.

Kodi kutsimikizira kuti atomu dongosolo zovuta

Ngakhale pamaso pa anapeza elekitironi ndi asayansi, linagwirizana amavomereza kuti maatomu alibe mlandu. Ndiye, anapezeka kuti ma elekitironi mosavuta kusiyana kwa aliyense anakhumba mchitidwe mankhwala. Angapezeke mu lawi, iwo ali ndi magetsi, iwo kumasula zinthu pa x-ray cheza.

Koma ngati ma elekitironi ali mbali ya onse popanda yekha, ndipo maatomu zoipa mlandu, motero, mu atomu pali ena particles amene Onetsetsani kuti mtengo zabwino, mwinamwake maatomu sizikanakhala electrically ndale. Kuthandiza kumasulira kapangidwe ka atomu chatithandizira chodabwitsa thupi monga mpweya wa poizoni. Iwo anapereka tanthauzo lolondola la atomu mu sayansi, kenako zimapangidwira.

Cheza wosaoneka

French sayansi A. Becquerel anali woyamba kufotokoza chodabwitsa cha umuna ndi ma atomu a ena zinthu mankhwala, zowoneka wosaoneka kunyezimira. Iwo ionize mpweya kudutsa zinthu, kuchititsa blackening mbale Zithunzi. Kenako, Curies ndi Rutherford anapeza kuti zinthu nyukiliya akusinthika mu maatomu a zinthu zina mankhwala (monga ureniamu - neptunium).

cheza nyukiliya ndi nonuniform mu zikuchokera: particles Alpha, particles beta, Popanga madzi a gamma kunyezimira. Choncho, chodabwitsa cha mpweya wa poizoni anatsimikizira kuti tebulo nthawi ya zinthu particles ndi dongosolo zovuta. Zimenezi anachititsa kusintha kwa tanthauzo la maatomu. Kodi particles ndi atomu, woperekedwa ndi Rutherford analandira mfundo yatsopano sayansi? Yankho la funso limeneli linali akufuna katswiri nyukiliya chitsanzo cha maatomu, chimene mozungulira ndithu-mlandu phata ma elekitironi kusuntha.

Zotsutsana Rutherford lachitsanzo

Chiphunzitso cha wasayansi, ngakhale chikhalidwe chabwino, sanathe mwachikulu chimatanthauza atomu. anapezazo ake zinali zosiyana ndi malamulo lofunika yopezeka m'zinthu zachilengedwe, chimene onse ma elekitironi pa makina a mtima kutaya mphamvu zawo ndipo, monga mmene zingakhalire, posapita nthawi ndi umene ungamuphe. Atomu Pankhaniyi anawonongedwa. Izi ziri choncho ayi, chifukwa mankhwala ndi tinthu limene iwo amapangidwa, kulibe m'chilengedwe kwa nthawi yaitali. Mosadziwika atomu mwatsimikiza mtima kuchita zimenezi potengera chiphunzitso cha Rutherford, komanso chodabwitsa chimene chimachitika pamene tikudutsa zinthu yosavuta otentha kupyolera mapindidwe akuwala grating. Pambuyo makulidwe a atomiki anapanga pa nthawi yomweyo ndi mawonekedwe liniya. Izi zinkatsutsana ndi Rutherford chitsanzo cha atomu, malinga ndi zimene sipekitiramu anayenera kukhala mosalekeza. Malinga ndi malingaliro okonzera kwadzidzidzi, ma elekitironi pano mu phata si yodziwika monga zinthu mfundo komanso ndi mawonekedwe a elekitironi mtambo.

Ambiri kachulukidwe ake mu locus zina za danga padziko phata, ndipo ankaona kuti malo Nyerere yaing'ono nthawi zina. Komanso, chinapezeka kuti ma elekitironi mu atomu imakonzedwa mu zigawo. chiwerengero cha zigawo zingadziŵike kudziwa chiwerengero cha nthawi imene zinthu mu nthawi ndi nthawi D. I. Mendeleeva System. Mwachitsanzo, phosphorous atomu lili 15 ma elekitironi ndipo ali milingo mphamvu zitatu. Chizindikiro, amene amasankha chiwerengero cha milingo mphamvu amatchedwa yaikulu kwadzidzidzi chiwerengero.

Icho chinakhazikitsidwa experimentally kuti mlingo mphamvu ya ma elekitironi, yomwe ili pafupi ndi pakati, mphamvu kuthungo. Aliyense chipolopolo mphamvu lagawidwa milingo kum'mwera, ndi iwo, nawonso, pa orbitals lapansi. Ma elekitironi zili pa orbitals osiyana chimodzimodzi mawonekedwe mitambo (s, p, anthu d, f).

Kuchokera pa zimene takambiranazi, ndizoonekeratu kuti mawonekedwe a elekitironi mtambo sangakhale umasinthasintha. Iwo mosamalitsa anatsimikiza mogwirizana ndi yozungulira chiwerengero kwadzidzidzi. Ife kuwonjezera komanso kuti chikhalidwe cha elekitironi kuti particulate ndi Amayesetsanso mfundo ziwiri - maginito ndi sapota manambala kwadzidzidzi. Woyamba zachokera Schrodinger aone kuti pali ndipo amadziwika ndi lathu okhudza malo a elekitironi mtambo pamaziko a atatu dimensionality dziko. Chizindikiro chachiwiri - chiwerengero cha sapota pa izo kudziwa kasinthasintha ndi elekitironi padziko nguli kapena kauntala mobwerera.

Kupezeka kwa nyutironi ndi

Kudzera m'ntchito ya D. Chadwick, kuwaika mu 1932, kunapatsidwa tanthauzo latsopano la atomu mu umagwirira ndi sayansi. Mu zatsopano awo sayansi anakhalira kuti pogawanikana pamawere kumachitika cheza polonium chifukwa cha particles ndi opanda mtengo, misa 1,008665. A latsopano pulayimale tinthu anawatcha nyutironi. Kupezeka ake ndi kuphunzira katundu analola asayansi Soviet V. Gapon ndi Ivanenko kulenga chiphunzitso chatsopano cha dongosolo la phata atomiki, munali mapulotoni neutrons.

Malinga ndi chiphunzitso chatsopano, kupeza mankhwala anali atomu zotsatirazi kupanga structural unit wa zinthu mankhwala, wopangidwa mwa pachimake munali mapulotoni, neutrons ndi ma elekitironi akusuntha mozungulira icho. chiwerengero cha particles abwino phata nthawi zonse wofanana ndi chiwerengero ordinal wa zinthu mankhwala dongosolo nthawi.

Kenako Professor Zhdanov mu zatsopano wake anatsimikizira kuti mchikakamizo cheza zovuta dziko, mtima atomiki ndi unagawika mapulotoni neutrons. Komanso wakhala anasonyeza kuti mphamvu kugwirizira particles izi pulayimale mu phata, izo zedi mphamvu kwambiri. Amachita mtunda waufupi kwambiri (a dongosolo la 10 ^-23 cm), wotchedwa nyukiliya. Monga tanena kale, ndi MV Lomonosov anatha kupereka tanthauzo la atomu ndi molekyulu pa maziko a sayansi kudziwika kwa iye.

Panopa anazindikira tione chitsanzo zotsatirazi: atomu imakhala ndi phata ndi ma elekitironi kuyenda kuzungulira mu njira mosamalitsa kumatanthauza - orbitals. Ma elekitironi nthawi yomweyo kuonetsa katundu wa particles komanso mafunde, ndiye ndi chikhalidwe wapawiri. Phata la atomu ali anaikira pafupifupi onse misa. Amakhala mapulotoni neutrons kugwirizana ndi mphamvu nyukiliya.

Kaya n'zotheka kulemera atomu

Iwo likukhalira kuti aliyense atomu ali misa. Mwachitsanzo, ndi a haidrojini 1,67h10 ^-24 ngakhale kovuta kulingalira mmene yaing'ono mtengo uwu. Kupeza kulemera kwa chinthu, musagwiritsire ntchito masikelo, ndi oscillator, umene ndi mpweya nanotube. Kuwerengetsa kulemera kwa atomu ndi molekyulu kwambiri yabwino kuchuluka ndi kulemera wachibale. Limatisonyeza mmene nthawi zambiri kulemera kwa molekyulu kapena atomu oposa 1/12 ya mpweya atomu, amene ali 1,66h10 ^-27 kg. Wachibale misa atomiki kuperekedwa ku gome nthawi ya zinthu mankhwala, ndipo alibe gawo.

Asayansi zimadziŵa kuti kulemera atomiki wa chinthu mankhwala - ndi pafupifupi misa chiwerengero cha isotopes. Zikuoneka mu chikhalidwe cha wagawo wina wa chinthu mankhwala akhoza kukhala misa osiyana. Choncho mlandu wa mtima zoterozo structural tinthu chomwecho.

Asayansi apeza kuti isotopes amasiyana chiwerengero cha neutrons mu phata ndi mtima kuwalamula zofanana. Mwachitsanzo, chlorine atomu, ndi misa 35 munali neutrons 18 ndi 17 mapulotoni, ndi unyinji wa 37 - 20 mapulotoni 17 neutrons. mankhwala zinthu zambiri ndi zosakaniza isotopes. Mwachitsanzo, zinthu zophweka monga potassium argon, mpweya ali zikuchokera maatomu ake woimira 3 isotope osiyana.

Khama la atomicity

Iwo ali kutanthauzira angapo. Taganizirani tanthauzo la mawu amenewa zimapangidwira. Ngati maatomu a chinthu mankhwala akhoza osachepera kwa kanthawi kochepa kulibe kwayekha, si amakonda kupanga particles zovuta zambiri - mamolekyulu, ndiye tinganene kuti zinthu zina ndi dongosolo atomiki. Mwachitsanzo, Mipikisano gawo chlorination zimene dziko. Ambiri ntchito mu umagwirira organic kupanga kwa akuluakulu ena ofanana halogen: dichloromethane, mpweya tetrachloride. Iwo unagawanika chlorine mamolekyulu kwa maatomu ndi mkulu reactivity. Iwo kuwononga Sigma nsinga mu dziko molekyulu, kupereka unyolo M'MALO anachita.

Chitsanzo china ndi ndondomeko mankhwala ndi zofunika kwambiri makampani - kugwiritsa ntchito hydrogen peroxide monga tizilombo toyambitsa matenda ndi oyeretsa wothandizira. Khama la mpweya atomiki monga pogawanikana pamawere mankhwala a hydrogen peroxide akupezeka maselo onse moyo (ndi puloteni catalase), ndi zasayansi. Atomiki mpweya qualitatively anatsimikiza ndi antioxidant ake katundu mkulu ndi luso kuwononga wothandizila tizilombo: Mabakiteriya, bowa ndi spores awo.

Kodi envelopu nyukiliya

Ife kale anapeza kuti structural unit wa chinthu mankhwala ali ndi dongosolo zovuta. Padziko ndithu-mlandu particles phata zokhudza ma elekitironi negative. The Nobel Prize Niels Bohr, zochokera kwadzidzidzi chiphunzitso cha kuwala, analenga chiphunzitso, mmene mapangidwe ndi chizindikiritso cha maatomu ali motere: ma elekitironi zikuyendayenda phata yekha pa zina njira anakonza Pankhaniyi musati limatulutsa mphamvu. Bohr, asayansi asonyeza kuti particles wa microworld, chimene monga ma atomu ndi mamolekyulu osamvera malamulo chomveka matupi lalikulu - akutsutsa macrocosm.

Kapangidwe ka zipolopolo ndi elekitironi wa particulates wakhala anaphunzira mapepala asayansi sayansi kwadzidzidzi monga Hund, Pauli Klechkovskii. Popeza anadziwika kuti ma elekitironi kupanga lamulo rotational padziko phata si wachisokonezo, koma ena njira lokhazikika. Pauli anapeza kuti mwa mlingo mphamvu umodzi pa aliyense wa orbitals m ake, p, anthu d, f maselo pakompyuta kungakhale oposa awiri zoipa mlandu particles wa pandunji sapota mtengo + ½ - ½.

ulamuliro Hund anafotokoza mmene kudzaza elekitironi orbitals ndi kuchepa mphamvu yomweyo.

Aufbau mfundo umatchedwanso ulamuliro N + L, fotokozani mmene wodzazidwa orbitals multielectron maatomu (zinthu 5, 6, 7 m'zinthu). Onse regularities pamwamba anatumikira monga maziko ongolankhula wa zinthu mankhwala analengedwa ndi Dmitriem Mendeleevym.

digiri makutidwe ndi okosijeni

Ndilo lingaliro ofunika umagwirira ndi analongosola mkhalidwe atomu mu molekyulu ndi. The tanthauzo la makono a mlingo wa makutidwe ndi okosijeni wa maatomu ndi motere: mlandu ndi wabwino maatomu mu molekyulu, amene Calculated zochokera mfundo kuti molekyulu ali yekha zikuchokera amaayoni.

makutidwe ndi okosijeni The tingasonyezere ndi inteja kapena chiwerengero fractional, ndi makhalidwe abwino, oipa kapena ziro. Mu maatomu ambiri a zinthu mankhwala ndi limati makutidwe ndi okosijeni angapo. Mwachitsanzo, asafe ndi -3, -2, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5. Koma chinthu, monga fluorine, mu zonse mankhwala ake ali chimodzi chokha makutidwe ndi okosijeni boma wofanana -1. Ngati anapereka mankhwala osavuta, makutidwe ndi okosijeni uliri wa ziro. Izi zedi mankhwala yabwino ntchito ndi gulu la zinthu ndi kufotokoza katundu wawo. Nthawi zambiri, ndi makutidwe ndi okosijeni digiri zimapangidwira ntchito pokhazikitsa zochita maikwezhoni redox.

The katundu wa maatomu

Chifukwa cha atulukira kwadzidzidzi sayansi, tanthauzo la makono a maatomu, ozikidwa pa mfundo Ivanenko ndi Gapon E, wodzilemekeza zotsatirazi sayansi. Kapangidwe ka ndi phata atomiki ndi sanasinthe pa zochita mankhwala a. kusintha amakhudza okha n'kupuma elekitironi orbitals. Kapangidwe awo akhoza zimachitika kwambiri za thupi katundu ndi mankhwala zinthu. Ngati elekitironi masamba ndi mpita n'kupuma n'kuyamba yozungulira ndi apamwamba mphamvu atomu amenewa amatchedwa okondwa.

Tikumbukenso kuti ma elekitironi simungathe kukhala nthawi yaitali pa orbitals awa sanali pachimake. Tikaonanso kanjira kake n'kupuma, ndi elekitironi limatulutsa ndi kwadzidzidzi mphamvu. Phunziro makhalidwe a mayunitsi structural wa zinthu mankhwala monga elekitironi kuyandikana, electronegativity, ionization mphamvu, walola asayansi osati kuthandauza atomu monga chida tinthu microcosm, komanso analola kufotokoza luso maatomu kupanga khola ndi ankafalitsa mwakhama kwambiri yabwino maselo boma la kanthu, ndi zotheka chifukwa cha kulenga aliwonse khola nsinga mankhwala: amaayoni, covalent-kumalo ozizira ndi apolar, mwiniwake-acceptor (monga zamoyo covalent kogwirizana) ndi mamita etallicheskoy. Yotsirizira Mzimuyo zofunika kwambiri thupi katundu ndi mankhwala zitsulo.

Icho chinakhazikitsidwa experimentally kuti kukula kwa atomu siyana. Onse kudzadalira molekyulu umene ali nawo. Kudzera X-ray mapindidwe akuwala kusanthula mukhoza kuwerengera mtunda pakati pa maatomu mu pawiri mankhwala, komanso kuphunzira utali wozungulira structural mchitidwe unit. Kukhala Pantchito za kusintha kwa radii maatomu munali mu nthawi kapena gulu la zinthu mankhwala, n'zotheka kulosera katundu thupi ndi mankhwala. Mwachitsanzo, nthawi ndi kuwonjezeka phata atomiki mlandu radii awo kuchepa ( "psinjika atomu"), choncho kufooketsa zachitsulo katundu wa mankhwala, ndipo nonmetallic nakweza.

Chotero, kudziŵa kapangidwe ka atomu ya molondola kudziwa thupi katundu ndi mankhwala zinthu zonse m'gulu dongosolo nthawi ya zinthu.