Umagwirira: zofunika zachikunja, matanthauzo, mawu ndi malamulo

Zimapangidwira, mfundo zikuluzikulu zomwe tikambirana - ndi sayansi kuti amaphunzira zinthu ndi kusinthika awo zikuchitika ndi kusintha kapangidwe ndi zikuchokera, choncho katundu. Choyamba, tifunika kumasulila tanthauzo la liwu monga "mankhwala". Ngati ife kulankhula za izo m'lingaliro yotakata, ndi mawonekedwe kanthu kuti ali ndi misa zina. Mankhwala ndi aliyense tinthu pulayimale, mwachitsanzo, nyutironi. Mu umagwirira, mawuwa amagwiritsidwa ntchito m'njira kuchepera.

Kuyamba ndi kufotokoza mwachidule mfundo zazikulu ndi mfundo zimapangidwira, chiphunzitso atomiki-maselo. Pamenepo ife kuwafotokoza, komanso alipo ena malamulo ofunika a sayansi.

Zikhulupiriro Basic zimapangidwira (kanthu, ma atomu, mamolekyu) ndi yodziwika kwa ife tonse ku sukulu. Pansipa pali kufotokoza mwachidule iwo, komanso ena, mawu zochepa zoonekeratu ndi zochitika.

maatomu

Choyamba, zinthu zonse zimene anaphunzira umagwirira lopangidwa particles ang'onoang'ono, wotchedwa maatomu. Neutrons si chinthu chomwecho kuphunzira za sayansi. Tiyeneranso kuti maatomu zingagwirizanitse ndi mzake, potero kupanga kumangidwa mankhwala. Kuti aswe nkhani imeneyi, n'koyenera Tikaganizira za mphamvu. Choncho, maatomu mu zikhalidwe zachilendo kulibeko payekha (kupatula "mpweya achifumu"). N'zokhudza ndi mzake pa awiriawiri.

Wopitiriza matenthedwe kayendedwe

Wopitiriza matenthedwe zoyenda particles yodziwika ndi kuti umagwirira onse kuphunzira. Malingaliro zikuluzikulu za sayansi sindingathe kufotokoza, musati kulankhula za izo. Ndi mosalekeza kayendedwe pafupifupi mphamvu kayendedwe ndi njila kwa kutentha Nyerere ndi (ngakhale tisaiwale kuti mphamvu pa particles osiyana apawokha). Ekin = kt / 2, pamene K - ndi Boltzmann mosaleka. chilinganizo zimenezi zili zoyenera kwa mtundu uliwonse wa gululi. Popeza Tkin = MV ^2/2, chisonyezo cha particles chachikulu pang'onopang'ono. Mwachitsanzo, ngati kutentha yemweyo, mpweya molekyulu pafupifupi kusuntha kwa nthawi 4 pang'onopang'ono kuposa mamolekyulu mpweya. Ichi ndi chifukwa misa zawo ndi nthawi zoposa 16. kuyenda ndi zokhala translational ndi rotational. Zokhala anati mu zinthu madzi ndi olimba, ndi gaseous. Koma translational ndi rotational mosavuta ikuchitika mpweya. Mu zakumwa, n'kovuta kwambiri, ndi zolimba - ngakhale kovuta.

mamolekyulu

Tipitirize pofotokoza mfundo zikuluzikulu ndi matanthauzo zimapangidwira. Ngati ma atomu amaphatikizidwa ndi mzake, kupanga gulu laling'ono (otchedwa mamolekyulu), magulu amenewa nawo zoyenda ikukhudzana kumachita ngati amodzi. Mpaka 100 maatomu pano mu mamolekyulu lililonse, ndipo chiwerengero chawo ndi otchedwa mankhwala apamwamba maselo kungakhale kwa 105.

zinthu si maselo

Komabe, maatomu nthawi zambiri amaphatikiza nambala yaikulu magulu kuchokera 107 mpaka 1027. Mu mawonekedwe uno pafupifupi salinso nawo zoyenda matenthedwe. zinthu zimenezi ndi nkhope kwa molekyulu ndi. Iwo amakhala ngati zidutswa za olimba. zinthu zimenezi zimatchedwa si maselo. Pankhaniyi, chisonyezo matenthedwe ikuchitika mkati chidutswa, ndipo iye akhoza kuwuluka monga molekyulu. Pali dera kusintha ndi makulidwe, womwenso mayanjano wapangidwa maatomu mu kuchuluka kwa kuchokera 105 mpaka 107. particles Izi mwina mamolekyulu lalikulu kwambiri kapena mbewu ka ufa.

ayoni

Tikumbukenso kuti maatomu ndi magulu akhoza ali ndi mlandu magetsi. Pankhaniyi iwo amatchedwa ayoni mu sayansi, ngati zimapangidwira, mfundo yaikulu ya zimene tikuphunzira. Popeza milandu ngati nthawi zonse amawateteza mzake, chinthu amene ali pano ndi muyeso yokulirapo ya munthu kapena ena a milandu akhoza kukhala m'khola. The milandu zoipa ndi zabwino nthawi zonse taphunzira danga. Koma ambiri, mankhwala ndi electrically ndale. Onani kuti milandu kuti amaonedwa zikuluzikulu electrostatics, amazionera zimapangidwira ndi negligible (pa 105-1015 maatomu - 1e).

Zinthu akuphunzira umagwirira

M'pofunika kufotokozera kuti zinthu akuphunzira umagwirira amalimbikitsa zochitika, amene osadzuka, ndipo siziboola pansi maatomu, koma musanjenso, kuti chikugwirizana m'njira yatsopano. Ena nsinga ndi wosweka, ena anapanga chifukwa. M'mawu ena, zinthu zatsopano kuonekera kwa maatomu woyambawo mu zikuchokera zipangizo poyambira. Ngati maatomu, ndi maulalo alipo pakati pa iwo zasungidwa (mwachitsanzo, wa evaporation mankhwala maselo), pasukuluyi ikukhudzana bwanji ndi phunziro la yaitali Chemistry ndi maselo Physics. Ngati kumene ma atomu anapanga kapena wosweka, ndi kuphunzira phunziro la sayansi ya nyukiliya kapena atomiki. Komabe, malire pakati mankhwala ndi zochitika thupi anangotengeka. Pambuyo gulu la sayansi ku makonzedwe osiyana, koma chikhalidwe indivisible. Choncho chidziwitso akatswiri kwambiri za sayansi.

Zikhulupiriro Basic zimapangidwira tinali zafotokozedwa mwachidule. Tsopano timapereka inu zambiri amaona.

Werengani zambiri za maatomu

Maatomu ndi mamolekyulu - chinachake chimene anthu ambiri umagwirira wothandizira. mfundo zofunika, izi ziyenera zodziwika bwino. chakuti maatomu kulibe, zaka zikwi ziwiri zapitazo, kunali nkhonya ya namatetule kupeka. Kenako, m'zaka za m'ma 19, asayansi anali deta experimental (koma mozungulira). Tikuyankhula zokhudza maubwenzi angapo Avogadro malamulo zikuchokera mosalekeza (m'munsimu ife tiyang'ana pa mfundo zazikulu za umagwirira). Atomu kupitiriza kufufuza m'zaka za m'ma 20, pamene panali kale kwambiri za umboni mwachindunji experimental. Iwo zochokera kafukufuku wazamawalidwe, kuti kubalalika kwa X-ray, particles Alpha, neutrons, ma elekitironi, etc. The kukula kwa particles izi ndi za 1 E = 1 ° ^-10 mamita Kulemera kwa - .. Pafupifupi 10 ^-27 - 10 ^-25 kg. Pakati pa particles ali ndithu mlandu pakati padziko zomwe ma elekitironi kusuntha mlandu negative. Zokhala kukula ndi za 10 mpaka ¹⁵ m. Iwo likukhalira kuti Mzimuyo kukula kwa elekitironi chigoba cha maatomu, koma mu nkhani iyi ake kulemera pafupifupi kwathunthu anaikira mu phata la. tanthauzo wina anayambitsa, kuganizira mfundo zofunika zimapangidwira. Chemical mchitidwe - choyimira cha maatomu, kuyang'anira phata amene ali ofanana.

Nthawi zambiri amapezeka mtima atomu monga miniti tinthu mankhwala mankhwala indivisible. Kodi kumvetsa "mankhwala"? Monga taonera, gulu la zochitika mu kuyesedwa thupi ndi mankhwala. Koma kumene kuli maatomu. Choncho, kudziwa umagwirira bwino mwa iwo, ndipo osati mosemphanitsa, maatomu kudzera zimapangidwira.

Chemical chomangira

Izi kotero kuti maatomu ikuchitikira pamodzi. Iwo salola iwo kuuluka popanda mchikakamizo cha zoyenda matenthedwe. Pano pali makhalidwe chachikulu cha kumangidwa - ndi mtunda internuclear ndi mphamvu. Iyi ndi mfundo zofunika zimapangidwira. Ubwenzi kutalika anatsimikiza experimentally ndi zolondola mokwanira mkulu. Mphamvu - nawonso, koma osati nthawi zonse. Mwachitsanzo, sikutheka mwachikulu aone zomwe ndi poyerekezera ndi kulankhulana osiyana mu molekyulu zovuta. Komabe, mphamvu ya atomization chuma chofunika kuswa maulalo onse alipo nthawi zonse zotsimikizika. Kudziwa kutalika kugwirizana, mukhoza kudziwa maatomu ogwirizana (ali pang'ono), ndipo kodi - palibe (yaitali mtunda).

Nambala kugwirizana ndi mgwirizano

Zikhulupiriro Basic zimapangidwira mawunikidwe monga mawu awa awiri. Kodi chiyani? Dziwani izi.

Nambala kugwirizana ndi chiwerengero cha anthu oyandikana yapafupi ya kuti atomu makamaka. M'mawu ena, chiwerengero cha anthu amene iye zokhudzana mankhwala. Mgwirizanowu ndi mwagwirizana malo, mtundu ndi chiwerengero cha anthu oyandikana. M'mawu ena, lingaliro ili ndi kwaphindu kwambiri. Mwachitsanzo, mgwirizano nambala ya asafe mamolekyulu khalidwe la ammonia ndi asidi nitric, yemweyo - 3. Komabe, iwo ndi kugwirizana osiyana - ndi si planar ndi lathyathyathya. Amaonekera osayang'ana chikhalidwe cha kugwirizana zithunzi, pamene boma makutidwe ndi okosijeni ndipo valence wa - chiphunzitso cha makonzedwe, amene analengedwa kuti afike kuneneratu kugwirizana ndi zikuchokera.

Khama la molekyulu

Ife kale anakhudza lingaliro ili, kuganizira mfundo zikuluzikulu ndi malamulo zimapangidwira mwachidule. Tsopano amakhalamo mwatsatanetsatane. M'mabukhu pafupipafupi kuona molekyulu monga particles m'munsi ndale thunthu, amene ali katundu mankhwala, ndipo pakhale paokha. Tikumbukenso kuti tanthauzo limeneli panopa akale. Choyamba, chakuti sayansi zonse ndi akatswiri amanena kuti molekyulu ndi katundu mankhwala siopulumutsidwa. Madzi dissociates, koma pamafunika osachepera 2 mamolekyulu. Mlingo wa dissociation madzi - ndi 10 ^-7. M'mawu ena, ndondomeko izi zikhoza kukhala molekyulu umodzi wokha wa miliyoni 10 Ngati muli ndi molekyulu wosakwatiwa, kapena ngakhale zana., Inu simungakhoze kupeza chithunzithunzi cha dissociation ake. chakuti zotsatira matenthedwe mosiyanasiyana mankhwala zambiri monga mogwirizana mphamvu pakati pa mamolekyulu. Choncho, iwo sangakhoze kupezeka pa chimodzi cha izo. Ndipo mankhwala ndi thupi katundu zinthu maselo zingadziŵike okha ndi gulu lalikulu la tinthu. Komanso, pali wothandizira amene amatha kukhalapo paokha, "zazing'ono" tinthu kalekale kwambiri ndi wosiyana kwambiri ndi tinthu ochiritsira. Molekyulu ndi lofunikira gulu la atomu si electrically mlandu. Mu nkhani zosiyanasiyana, zingakhale atomu imodzi Mwachitsanzo, Nehemiya. gulu ayenera kukhala nawo mayamwidwe a, komanso zina zoyenda ikukhudzana kumachita ngati amodzi.

Monga mukuonera, si mophweka mfundo zofunika zimapangidwira. Molekyulu - ndi chinthu chimene aliyense ayenera kuziganizira mofatsa. Iwo ali katundu ake, ndi kulemera maselo. Pofotokoza za ife tsopano tikambirane.

misa maselo

Kodi kudziwa kulemera maselo a chochitika? Njira imodzi - chimadzera m'chilamulo Avogadro ndi osalimba wachibale wa nthunzi. The njira yolondola kwambiri ndi misa spectrometry. Elekitironi kugonja pa molekyulu ndi. The ion chifukwa koyamba omwazika m'munda magetsi kenako anapanduka ndi njira yake maginito. Lamulira kuti chiŵerengero misa anatsimikiza ndi ukulu wa kupatuka pa. Palinso njira yochokera katundu amene ali njira. Komabe ataunika milandu onse ayenera kukhala zoyenda - mu njira mu vacuo kwa mpweya. Ngati iwo Usaigwedezere, sikutheka mwachikulu kuwerengetsa kulemera. Komanso moyo wawo kwambiri Pankhaniyi n'zovuta kudziwa.

Features zinthu si maselo

Akulankhula za iwo amati linapangidwa maatomu, osati mamolekyulu. Komabe, yemweyu ali wowona za mpweya wolemekezeka. maatomu izi chingathe momasuka, Choncho bwino kuganiza mamolekyulu awo monohydric. Komabe, izi si zofunika. Nkofunika kuti zinthu si maselo, pali zambiri maatomu omwe zinalumikizana pamodzi. Tikumbukenso kuti gulu la zinthu zonse pa maselo ndipo sanali maselo osakwanira. Kudulidwa kwa kugwirizana kwambiri. , Mwachitsanzo, taganizirani kusiyana kwa katundu wa graphite ndi diamondi. Zonsezo ndi mpweya, koma choyamba - zofewa, ndipo chachiwiri - olimba. Kodi amasiyana mzake? kusiyana ziri mu zamalumikizidwe awo. Ngati tikambirana kapangidwe ka graphite, tingathe kuona kuti ubale wokazikika unalipo mu mbali ziwiri. Koma lachitatu kutalika kwambiri kwambiri interatomic Choncho, pali mgwirizano wamphamvu. Graphite n'zosavuta kuzembera nazigawa pamodzi zigawo izi.

zamalumikizidwe kapangidwe

Apo ayi, amatchedwa gawo okhudza malo. Bwaloli chiwerengero cha kutalika kwa danga, yodziwika kuti izi mosalekeza (pafupifupi malire) mafupa system (limasonyeza amphamvu). Zinthu zimatenga, - 0 1, 2 ndi 3. Choncho, m'pofunika kusiyanitsa atatu dimensionally chikugwirizana, laminates, ndi chilumba unyolo (maselo) kapangidwe.

Chilamulo cha kufanana yotsimikizika

Taphunzira kale malingaliro zofunika zimapangidwira. Mabukuwa anali mwachidule nkhani imene ife. Tsopano ndikuwuzani za lamulo lokhudza izo. Kawirikawiri izo anakonza motere: chigawo chilichonse umodzi (i.e., woyera), mosasamala kanthu za mmene zimenezi analandira ali yemweyo Mkhalidwe ndi kachulukidwe zikuchokera. Koma kodi mfundo "chinthu choyera"? Dziwani izi.

zaka zikwi ziwiri zapitazo, pamene dongosolo la zinthu siingakhale njira zambiri mwachindunji kuphunzira pamene munali zofunika mankhwala mfundo ndi malamulo zimapangidwira, bwino kwa ife, kunaikidwiratu descriptively. Mwachitsanzo, madzi - ndi madzi omwe maziko a m'nyanja ndi m'mitsinje. Ilibe fungo, mtundu, kukoma. Uli ndi kusungunukira ndi yozizira koopsa mfundo, kuchokera ndi buluu mkuwa sulphate. Salt madzi ndi chifukwa si woyera. Komabe, salt akhoza ankasiyana distillation. Monga chonchi, ndi njira ofotokoza, kutsimikiza malingaliro mankhwala zikuluzikulu ndi malamulo zimapangidwira.

Akatswiri a sayansi pa nthawi sizinali zoonekeratu kuti madzi kuti yafotokozedwa m'njira zosiyanasiyana (ndi moto wa hydrogen sulphate madzi m'thupi, m'madziwo distillation), ali zikuchokera chomwecho. Great anapeza mu sayansi ndi umboni wa mfundo imeneyi. Zinali zoonekeratu kuti chiŵerengero mpweya ndi wa hydrogen sizingasinthidwe bwino. Izi zikutanthauza kuti zinthu zimakhala ndi ma atomu - indivisible mbali. Motero mankhwala a njira anali okonzeka, komanso m'Malemba asayansi chifaniziro cha mamolekyulu.

Masiku ano chinthu chilichonse motsimikizira kapena wonse anatsimikiza makamaka amadzinenera osati kusungunuka, kukoma kapena mtundu. Madzi - H ₂ O. Ngati pali mamolekyu ena, sadzakhalanso woyera. Choncho, koyera mankhwala maselo ndi imodzi yomwe imakhala ndi mtundu umodzi wokha wa mamolekyulu.

Komabe, mu nkhani iyi, kukhala ndi electrolytes? Ndipotu, iwo monga ayoni alipo, mamolekyulu osati. Tiyenera kukhala okhwima tanthauzo. Koyera mankhwala maselo ndi imodzi yomwe imakhala ndi maselo a mtundu wina, ndipo mwina inunso mankhwala kusintha kwa kutembenuka mofulumira (mabungwe isomerization, dissociation). Mawu "mwamphamvu" mu nkhani izi zikutanthauza kuti pa mankhwala amenewa, sitingathe muchisiye, nthawi yomweyo reappear. Mawu "kusintha" akusonyeza kuti kutembenuka si anabweretsa ku mapeto. Ngati analidziwitsa, ndiye ndi bwino kuti ndi osalimba. Pankhaniyi si chinthu choyera.

Chilamulo cha kusamala Unyinji wa nkhani

Lamulo limeneli lili ndi kuyambira nthawi zakale kudziwika mu mawonekedwe zophiphiritsira chabe. Inanena kuti nkhaniyo sangathe analenga ndi wambawamba. Pomwepo adadza chiphunzitso chake kachulukidwe. Malinga ndi ichi, kulemera (ndi m'ma 17 - kulemera) ndi muyeso kuchuluka kwa mankhwala.

Lamulo mawonekedwe mwachizolowezi chinamasulidwa mu 1748 Lomonosov. Mu 1789, kunachititsa Lavoisier, ndi French wasayansi. Contemporary chiphunzitso chake chiri motere: unyinji wa zinthu adalowa mankhwala anachita ndi wofanana ndi unyinji wa zinthu zotsatira zake.

lamulo Avogadro ndi lamulo la volumetric ubale mipweya

Wotsirizayo anali kukonza mu 1808 ndi JL Gay-Lussac, French wasayansi. Panopa lamulo limeneli lotchedwa lamulo la Gay-Lussac. Malinga ndi izo, voliyumu ya mpweya zotakasika ndi kwa wina ndi mzake komanso kwa buku la chifukwa mankhwala gaseous monga manambala lonse yaing'ono.

Chitsanzo, amene anapezeka Gay-Lussac, limafotokoza lamulo, lomwe linatsegulidwa pang'ono kenako mu 1811, Amedeo Avogadro, ndi wasayansi Italy. Lembali limati m'mikhalidwe ofanana (kuthamanga ndi kutentha) mu mpweya wokhala ndi buku lomwelo, nambalayi wa mamolekyulu pano.

zotsatira ziwiri zofunika kutsatira kuyambira lamulo la Avogadro. Woyamba kwagona kuti atakumana zofanana, Mole wina mpweya aliyense ali buku ofanana. Kusamutsidwa kwa kaya pansi pa zikhalidwe zachilendo (amene ali kutentha 0 ° C ndi 101,325 kPa) anali 22,4 malita. Chotsatira chachiwiri cha lamulo limeneli motere: kulemera chiŵerengero mpweya wokhala yofanana m'mikhalidwe ofanana, wofanana ndi chiŵerengero cha awo misa molar.

Pali lamulo lina, amene amafunika kuti kutchulidwa. Ife angakuuzeni za mwachidule.

malamulo nthawi ndi tebulo

D. I. Mendeleev, zochokera katundu mankhwala zinthu ndi atomiki ndi maselo asayansi amene anapeza lamulo limeneli. Chochitika zinachitika March 1, 1869 nthawi ndi nthawi Chilamulo imodzi yofunika kwambiri m'chilengedwe. Iwo akhoza kunena motere: katundu wa zinthu anapanga zinthu zovuta ndi yosavuta ndi kudalira zodziwitsa pa milandu ya mtima wa maatomu.

Nthawi tebulo, amene analengedwa ndi Mendeleev, imakhala nthawi zisanu ndi magulu atatu. Magulu otchedwa mizati yake choimirira. M'bungwe aliyense wa iwo ndi ofanana thupi katundu ndi mankhwala. gulu, kenako, lagawidwa boma magulu (waukulu ndi mbali).

Mizere yopingasa tebulo akunena za nthawi. Zochitika zomwe zili mwa iwo amasiyana mwa iwo wokha, koma ndi ofanana - chakuti ma elekitironi awo atsopano pa mlingo mphamvu yomweyo. Mu nthawi yoyamba ndi zinthu ziwiri zokha. H ndi hydrogen ndi helium Iye. Zinthu zisanu ndi zitatu mu nthawi yachiwiri. Mu chachinayi cha kale 18. awo Mendeleev anatchulidwa nthawi imeneyi lalikulu loyamba. Mu nyengo yachisanu ndi 18, matabwa ake ndi ofanana ndi wachinayi. Monga mbali ya chisanu - 32 zinthu. chiwiri ndi sanamalize. Nthawiyi akuyamba ndi French (FR). Tikhoza kuganiza kuti izo ali ndi zinthu 32, komanso chimodzi. Komabe, mpaka 24 zokha apezeka.

ulamuliro otketa

Malinga ndi ulamuliro otketa zinthu zonse amakonda kuti tikhale ndi elekitironi kapena adzautaya kuti ndi 8-elekitironi kasinthidwe wa mpweya wolemekezeka pafupi iwo. The ionization mphamvu - ndi kuchuluka kwa mphamvu chofunika nadzawasankhula elekitironi kwa maatomu. ulamuliro Otketa limanena kuti pamene amayenda kumanzere pa tebulo nthawi muyenera mphamvu zambiri kuti amuchotsere elekitironi. Choncho, zinthu zimene ali kumanzere, funani kuonetsetsa kuti kumasula ndi elekitironi. M'malo mwake, iwo ili kumanja, amafunitsitsa kugula izo.

Malamulo ndi mfundo zofunika zimapangidwira, ife zafotokozedwa mwachidule. Kumene, ichi ndi ambiri zambiri. M'nkhani ina n'zosatheka kulankhula za chotero sayansi yaikulu mwatsatanetsatane. mfundo zikuluzikulu ndi malamulo zimapangidwira monga m'nkhaniyi - ndi poyambira liwunikidwenso. Ndipotu sayansi pali zigawo zambiri. Pali Mwachitsanzo, organic ndi umagwirira zochita kupanga. mfundo yaikulu ya aliyense wa masamba a sayansi akhoza kuphunzira kwa nthawi yaitali. Koma anthu tafotokozazi, amanena kuti nkhani ambiri. Choncho, tikhoza kunena kuti izi ndi mfundo zofunika zimapangidwira organic, komanso zochita kupanga.