Chilamulo cha zikuchokera zonse thunthu. malamulo Conservation mu umagwirira

Umagwirira limabweretsa gulu la sayansi yeniyeni, ndi kuwonjezera masamu ndi sayansi amakhazikitsa malamulo aliko ndi chitukuko cha nkhani ongokhala maatomu ndi mamolekyulu. Onse njira kunachitika zamoyo, ndi pakati pa zinthu zachilengedwe zopanda moyo, izo zinachokera pa chodabwitsa cha kutembenuka kwa misa ndi mphamvu. Chilamulo cha zikuchokera zonse za nkhaniyi, zomwe zoyenera kuphunzira nkhaniyi, mabodza mtima wa njira mu dziko zochita kupanga ndi organic.

chiphunzitso atomiki-maselo

Kumvetsa malamulo zenizeni chuma, muyenera kukhala ndi lingaliro la chimene anapanga. Malinga ndi wamkulu Russian wasayansi M. V. Lomonosova "mu mdima ndiyenera kukhala sayansi, makamaka akatswiri osadziwa dongosolo mkati particles." Iye ndiye anali mu 1741, poyamba theoretically ndipo kenako anatsimikizira chikusonyezera, anatulukira malamulo zimapangidwira, ndi maziko phunziro la amoyo ndi zinthu zopanda, akuti: zinthu zonse lopangidwa ndi ma atomu, mamolekyu angathe kupanga. particles zonsezi zoyenda zonse.

Oyamba ndi J. zolakwa. Dalton

zaka 50 Lomonosov chinayamba zoti English wasayansi John. Dalton. Asayansi adzakwaniritsadi kuwerengetsera chofunika kwambiri kudziwa kulemera kwa ma atomu a zinthu mankhwala a. Izi anatumikira monga umboni waukulu mfundo izi: kulemera kwa molekyulu ndi mankhwala akhoza masamu ndi kulemera atomiki la tinthu kapangidwe kake. Monga Lomonosov ndi Dalton ankakhulupirira kuti, mosasamala kanthu za njira yokonza, mankhwala a molekyulu adzakhala nthawi zonse wosasintha Mkhalidwe ndi kachulukidwe zikuchokera. Poyamba, lamulo la mosalekeza wa zikuchokera kanthu anali kukonza ngati njira. Pozindikira chopereka chopambana kuti sayansi Dalton, n'zosatheka kubisala cholakwa zosasangalatsa: kumakana kapangidwe maselo a zinthu zophweka monga mpweya, asafe, haidrojeni. Asayansi akukhulupirira kuti molekyulu ali zovuta yekha mankhwala. Popeza kutchuka waukulu kwambiri asayansi ya Dalton, zinyengo wake zisachitike chitukuko zimapangidwira.

Monga maatomu kulemedwa ndi tinthu

Kupezeka kwa oterowo mankhwala zopanda, monga lamulo la mosalekeza wa zikuchokera kanthu, chapangidwa zikomo zotheka kuti mfundo kusamala zinthu misa, unreacted anapanga yaitali. Komanso Dalton atomiki misa muyeso imachitika I. Berzelius lolondola atomiki zolemera tebulo la zinthu mankhwala ndi kupereka patsogolo lakuti awo monga makalata Latin. Panopa kulemera kwa ma atomu ndi mamolekyulu anatsimikiza ntchito ndi mpweya nanotube. Zotsatira zopezera maphunziro amenewa amatsimikizira malamulo alipo zimapangidwira. Poyamba ofufuza ntchito chida monga misa spectrometer, koma njira yovuta pamiyeso mu drawback spectrometry kwambiri.

N'chifukwa chiyani kuli kofunika lamulo la kusamala Unyinji wa mankhwala

Anakonza M. V. Lomonosovym pamwamba dzina lake mankhwala zopanda zikutsimikizira chakuti pa zimene maatomu ndi zina mwa reactants ndi mankhwala chiyani kutha ndipo amaoneka popanda. chiwerengero chawo awasungira popanda kusintha pambuyo pa ndondomeko mankhwala. The zonse kuyambira unyinji wa ma atomu, mfundo Zimenezi zimachititsa kuti chilamulo cha kusamala misa ndi mphamvu. Komanso, wasayansi ananena lamulo limeneli, monga mfundo ambiri zachilengedwe, natsimikiza interconversion mphamvu mosalekeza wa zikuchokera kanthu.

Maganizo J. Proust monga chitsimikiziro cha chiphunzitso atomiki-maselo

Ponena kutsegula kwa oterowo zopanda, monga lamulo la zikuchokera zonse. Zimapangidwira wa 18 mochedwa - oyambirira 19 atumwi - sayansi zimene asayansi anali kukangana asayansi awiri French, J. Proust ndi K. Berthollet. Origin ankanena kuti zikuchokera zinthu popangidwa ndi mankhwala anachita, zimadalira kwenikweni chikhalidwe cha reagents lapansi. Berthollet ankakhulupirira kuti mankhwala pa kapangidwe - mankhwala anachita nawonso anakhudzidwa ndi kuchuluka wachibale wa zimavuta zinthu. akatswiri ambiri mu maphunziro oyambirira amapereka lingaliro la Proust, amene anakonza iwo motere: zikuchokera pawiri zovuta ndi nthawi zonse ndipo alibe zimadalira specifications a chikhalidwe yomwe inalandiridwa. Komabe, atafufuza za njira madzi ndi olimba (kasakaniza wazitsulo) anatsimikizira ndinaganiza K. Berthollet. Izi zinthu lamulo la zikuchokera zonse anali inapplicable. Komanso, sachiza mankhwala ndi lattices amaayoni. The zikuchokera zinthu izi zimatengera pa njira zimene akuchita ncho.

Aliyense mankhwala mankhwala, kaya njira zake kukonzekera, mpaka kalekale Mkhalidwe ndi kachulukidwe zikuchokera. ameneŵa khalidwe lamulo la mosalekeza wa zikuchokera thunthu akufuna ndi J. Proust mu 1808. Monga umboni atchula zooneka zitsanzo zotsatirazi: Malachite ku Siberia ali zikuchokera mofanana mchere ndi ncho ku Spain; mu dziko pali cinnabar chimodzi chokha, ndipo alibe mtengo wa gawo ndi analandira. Choncho Proust anatsindika mosalekeza wa zikuchokera kanthu, mosaganizira za malo ndi njira ya ulimi wake.

Palibe malamulo popanda kuchotserapo

Ku lamulo la kufanana kotsimikizika, ndizoonekeratu kuti mapangidwe pawiri zovuta za zinthu mankhwala ogwirizana ndi mnzake mu magawanidwe ena kulemera. Posachedwa mankhwala sayansi anaonekera zokhudza kuli zinthu ndi zikuchokera variable, amene amadalira njira yokonza. Russian wasayansi M. Kurnakov akufuna anangotchula izi berthollides mankhwala monga okusayidi titaniyamu, madzi olemera, zirconium nitride.

Izi zinthu pa 1 mbali mwa kulemera kwa chinthu china ali ndi milingo yosiyanasiyana ya zinthu zina. Choncho, pawiri bayinare wa bismuth ndi gallium mbali imodzi mwa kulemera kwa gallium kugwa kuchokera mbali 1,24 kuti 1,82 wa bismuth. Kenako akatswiri anapeza kuti, kuwonjezera pa mankhwala chitsulo zinthu mzake osati lamulo la kufanana mwatchutchutchu, ndi mu izi kalasi ya mankhwala zochita kupanga monga oxides. Berthollides komanso khalidwe la sulfides, carbides, nitrides, ndi hydrides.

Udindo wa isotopes

Atakhala mu malo a chilamulo cha mosalekeza pa nkhaniyi, umagwirira ngati sayansi enieni amene wakwanitsa yolumikizana kulemera makhalidwe pawiri ndi munthu zili isotopic mbali analipanga. Kumbukirani kuti isotopes ankaona maatomu a mchitidwe mankhwala ndi pulotoni zofanana koma manambala osiyanasiyana nucleon. Popeza kukhalapo kwa isotopes, izo zamveka kuti zikuchokera ndi kulemera pawiri mwina variable pansi chikhalidwe cha zinthu zonse m'gulu thunthu. Ngati mchitidwe kumawonjezera zili isotope aliyense ndi kulemera kwa chinthu azisinthidwanso. Mwachitsanzo, madzi wamba limapangidwa 11% wa hydrogen, ndi kulemedwa popangidwa ndi isotope ake (deuterium) - 20%.

makhalidwe berthollides

Monga tanena kale, anafotokoza, malamulo kusamala mu umagwirira atsimikizire kamba zoyambirira za chiphunzitso atomiki-maselo ndipo mwamtheradi woona kwa thunthu la zikuchokera zonse - daltonides. berthollides A malire chimene chikhoza kusintha kulemera mbali ya nyengo. Mwachitsanzo, mu okusayidi wa tetravalent titaniyamu pa kulemera mbali ya zitsulo ukugwa kuchokera kumadera 0,65 kuti 0,67 wa oxygen. Zinthu sanali okhazikika zikuchokera alibe analembedwa maselo, lattices awo galasi ndi lopangidwa ndi maatomu. Choncho, mankhwala a chilinganizo mankhwala okha kusonyeza malire a zikuchokera awo. Osiyana ali zinthu zosiyanasiyana. Kutentha kungakhudzenso zikuchokera aataliatali mbali kulemera. Ngati zinthu ziwiri mankhwala kupanga pakati pa iwo ndi zinthu zochepa - berthollides, ndiye iwo simungakhoze kugwiritsidwa ntchito ndi lamulo la magawo angapo.

Mwa zitsanzo onse pamwamba kunena kuti umagwirira ongolankhula magulu awiri a zinthu alipo: zonse kapena variable zikuchokera. Kukhala chikhalidwe cha mankhwala awa ndi kutsimikizira kwambiri atomiki ziphunzitso maselo. Ndipo apa lamulo la zikuchokera zonse salinso lalikulu mu sayansi ndi mankhwala. Koma zikutsindika mbiri ya chitukuko.