Mbiri ya umagwirira organic. Phunziro ndi mtengo wa Chemistry Organic

anthu ochepa chabe amene amaganiza kuti kodi ntchito zimapangidwira organic mu moyo wa munthu masiku ano. Koma ndi waukulu, n'zovuta Musaone. M'mawa, pamene munthu n'kudzuka ndipo amapita kusamba, ndi bwino ku madzulo, pamene iye akupita kukagona, iye mopitiriza limodzi mankhwala zimapangidwira organic. Wamsuwachi zovala, pepala, mafuta odzola, mipando ndi mamangidwe mkati, ndi zina zambiri - onse zimatipatsa izo. Koma pamene izo sizinali choncho, ndi zasayansi organic kudziwa kwenikweni.

Tiyeni tione mmene kusanduka sitepe ndi sitepe mbiri zimapangidwira organic.

1. Nthawi ya chitukuko mpaka m'zaka XIV, otchedwa zachilengedwe.

2. XV - XVII m'ma - chiyambi cha chitukuko kapena iatrochemistry alchemy.

3. Century XVIII - XIX - pa ulamuliro wa chiphunzitso cha vitalism.

4. XIX - XX m'ma - tima chitukuko, siteji sayansi.

Yambani kapena gawo zachilengedwe chitukuko zimapangidwira organic

gawo tichipeza zikamera kwambiri ndi maganizo chiyambi mankhwala. Ndipo chiyambi apite kumbuyo Rome ndi ku Iguputo, omwe ndi nzika waluso kwambiri anaphunzira kupanga utoto kwa zinthu ochekenera ndi zovala kuchokera ku zipangizo zachilengedwe yaiwisi - masamba ndi mitengo ya mbewuzo. Amenewa anali enaake, kupereka kwambiri mtundu buluu, ndipo alizorin kudetsa kwenikweni onse mithunzi yowutsa mudyo ndi wokongola wa lalanje ndi wofiira. Modabwitsa anthu nimble amitundu yosiyanasiyana nthawi yomweyo komanso anaphunzira kuti viniga, kuti mizimu kuchokera sucrose ndi zinthu wowuma munali chiyambi mbewu.

Amadziwika kuti ndi chakudya wamba kwambiri kugwiritsa ntchito nthawi imeneyi anali nyama mafuta, mafuta masamba ndi resins kuti ntchito ndi oyang'anira zophika ndi asing'anga. Komanso moyo watsiku ndi tsiku wa ziphe osiyanasiyana mwamphamvu ngati chida chachikulu vnutriusobnyh Relations. zinthu zonsezi mankhwala zimapangidwira organic.

Koma, mwatsoka, monga, mfundo "zasayansi" kulibe, ndi kuphunzira zinthu zenizeni mu Pofuna kulongosola katundu ndi zikuchokera sizinkachitika. Choncho, nthawi iyi akutchedwa lachibadwa. atulukira onse anali mwachisawawa, unfocused chikhalidwe cha mfundo ogula. Mpaka m'ma lotsatira.

iatrochemistry nyengo - adzapeza chiyambi chitukuko

Inde, mu XVI wa - XVII zaka anayamba kutuluka zithunzi mwachindunji zimapangidwira sayansi. Kudzera m'ntchito ya asayansi nthawi zina akhala analandira zinthu organic anatulukira zida wosavuta distillation ndi sublimation zinthu ntchito zipangizo mankhwala apadera onongani zinthu kwa kulekana kwa mankhwala achilengedwe zosakaniza.

Chamene wa nthawi imeneyo anali mankhwalawo. Ndi mtima wofuna mankhwala zofunika kwachititsa chakuti mbewu anaima mafuta ofunika ndi zinthu zina yaiwisi. Choncho, Karl Scheele zimapezeka zidulo angapo organic kuchokera ku zipangizo masamba yaiwisi:

• malic;
• ndimu;
• gallic;
• mkaka;
• oxalic.

Phunziro la zomera ndi Kugawilidwa kwanthaka zidulo izi wasayansi anatenga zaka 16 (1769 ndi 1785). Ichi chinali chiyambi cha chitukuko, maziko zimapangidwira organic, amene ali mwachindunji monga nthambi zimapangidwira wakhala kuzindikiridwa ndi dzina kenako (oyambirira XVIII m'ma).

Mu nthawi yomweyo Middle GF anatsindika Rueil timibulu asidi uric ku urea. akatswiri ena asidi succinic anali kuwapeza Amber, asidi tartaric. Mu ntchito wamba zikuphatikizapo njira distillation youma zomera ndi nyama zipangizo, ndi amene analandira asidi acetic, diethyl efa, matabwa mowa.

Choncho anayamba kukula kwambiri wa organic makampani mankhwala m'tsogolo.

Vis vitalis, kapena "mphamvu ya moyo"

XVIII - XIX m'ma kwa zimapangidwira organic kwambiri ziŵiri: pa dzanja limodzi, pali anthu atulukira kuti ali ndi phindu lalikulu. Pa zina, nthawi yaitali, kukula ndi kudzikundikira chidziwitso ndi kuwongolera maganizo zogwirizana imathetsa chiphunzitso lalikulu la vitalism.

Chiphunzitsochi anayambitsa ndipo zafotokozedwa waukulu Jens Jakobs Berzelius, amene pa nthawi yomweyo iye wapereka, ndi tanthauzo zimapangidwira organic (chaka chenicheni silikudziwika, kapena 1807 kapena 1808). Malinga ndi chakudya cha ganizo limeneli, zinthu organic akhoza kupangidwa kokha zamoyo (nyama ndi zomera, kuphatikizapo anthu), ngati zamoyo yekha ndi yapadera "mphamvu ya moyo" kuti amalola zinthu amenewa. Ngakhale zinthu zochita kupanga kupeza organic zosatheka mwamtheradi, popeza mankhwala zopanda moyo, si flammable, popanda vis vitalis.

Asayansi chomwecho Gawo loyamba la onse odziwika nthawi ya mankhwala mu zochita kupanga (si amoyo, zinthu zonse monga madzi ndi mchere) ndi organic (moyo, amene ngati mafuta ndi shuga) wakhala akufuna. Komanso Berzelius woyamba anasankha mwachindunji kuti umagwirira amenewa organic. Khama anali: gawo zimapangidwira kuti amaphunzira zinthu anachokera ku zamoyo.

Nthawi imeneyi, asayansi mosavuta akuyendera kutembenuka kwa mankhwala organic mu zochita kupanga, mwachitsanzo, ndi kuyaka. Komabe, n'zotheka kutembenukanso chilichonse sankadziwika panobe.

Tsoka naye, kuti anali wophunzira Jens Berzelius Fridrih Veler chinathandiza chiyambi cha kugwa kwa chiphunzitso cha mphunzitsi wake.

German wasayansi ntchito pa mankhwala cyanide ndi imodzi zatsopano imachitika kupeza timibulu amalowerera Mofanana ndi asidi uric. Motero, kuphunzira bwino anapeza kuti kwenikweni anakwanitsa kufika organic ku zochita kupanga, popanda vis vitalis. Ziribe kanthu momwe amakayikira Berzelius, anakakamizika kuvomereza mfundo yosatsutsika yakuti. Choncho anali anachitira nkhonyayo oyamba maganizo vitalistic. Mbiri ya umagwirira organic anayamba apeze patsogolo.

Zingapo atulukira chisoni vitalism

Wohler bwino zachititsa chidwi akatswiri a za m'ma XVIII, choncho anayamba kuyezetsa ambiri ndi zatsopano kuti apeze nkhani organic mu m'galasi. syntheses amene ali ovuta ndi zofunika kwambiri akhala angapo.

1. 1845 G. - Adolf Kolbe amene anali wodziwika Wohler, amalowerera yosavuta inorganics C, H _2, O ₂ multistage kaphatikizidwe okwana kupeza asidi acetic, chomwe ndi organic.
2. 1812, Konstantinom Kirhgofom akuyendera shuga kaphatikizidwe kwa wowuma ndi acid.
3. 1820 Anri Brakonno denatured mapuloteni acid ndi ndiye ankachitira ndi asidi nitric ndi osakaniza kuwapeza woyamba 20 kwa amino zidulo apanga kenako - glycine.
4. 1809 Michel Chevreul anaphunzira zikuchokera mafuta, kuyesera unagawanika iwo mu zigawo zake constituent. Chifukwa cha zimenezi, iye analandira zidulo mafuta ndi glycerol. 1854, Zhan Bertlo anapitiriza ntchito Chevrel glycerol ndi mkangano ndi asidi stearic. Zotsatira - mafuta, ndendende akubwereza kapangidwe ka mankhwala achilengedwe. Kenako iye anakwanitsa kufika ndi mafuta ena ndi mafuta, amene anali osiyana pang'ono mu dongosolo maselo kuchokera analogues achilengedwe. Amene anasonyeza kuti n'zotheka kupeza mankhwala atsopano organic chofunika kwambiri zasayansi.
5. J. Berthelot apanga dziko ku sulfide wa hydrogen (H ₂ S) ndi mpweya disulfide (CS _2).
6. 1842 Zinin anatha lithe ndi aniline ku nitrobenzene utoto. Kenako anakwanitsa kufika chiwerengero cha utoto aniline.
7. A. Bayer amalenga zasayansi yake, amene wakhala akuchita ndi bwino kaphatikizidwe utoto organic, ofanana chachilengedwe: alizarin, indigoid, antrohinonovye, xanthene.
8. 1846 kaphatikizidwe nitroglycerin asayansi Sobrero. Iye anayamba mitundu chiphunzitso, amene amanena kuti zinthu zofanana ndi zina mwa zochita kupanga ndi akhoza kukhala okonzeka ndi kuchotsa ma atomu wa hydrogen mu dongosolo la.
9. 1861 A. M. Butlerov apanga sweetener wa formalin. Iwo anakonza ndi chakudya cha ganizo la dongosolo mankhwala mankhwala organic zogwirizana masiku ano.

anapezazo onsewa apeza nkhani zimapangidwira organic - mpweya ndi mankhwala ake. atulukira zina lolunjika pa njira ya zochita mankhwala umagwirira organic, kukhazikitsa chikhalidwe cha ankachita kompyuta, ndi kwa kapangidwe ka mankhwala.

The theka lachiwiri la XIX ndi XX m'ma - nthawi ya atulukira mankhwala padziko lonse

Mbiri ya umagwirira organic pa nthawi lasintha aakulu. Ntchito asayansi ambiri pa njira zako mkati mwa mamolekyulu, zochita ndi machitidwe ali yayenda bwino zipatso. Choncho, mu 1857, Friedrich Kekule anayamba chiphunzitso cha valence. Komanso wa phindu lalikulu - atulukira kapangidwe ka maselo a onunkhira hydrocarbon benzene. Pa yomweyo A. M. Butlerov anakonza chiphunzitso cha dongosolo udindo wa mankhwala mu lomwe limasonyeza kuti mpweya tetravalence ndi chodabwitsa kuli isomers, ndi isomers.

Vv Markovnikov ndi A. M. Zaytsev wofufuza kuphunzira njira anachita mu nkhani organic ndi zopanga malamulo amene amafotokoza njira izi ndi kutsimikizira. Mu 1873 - 1875 zaka. I. Wislicenus, Van't Hoff ndi Le Bel kuphunzira dongosolo okhudza malo maatomu mu mamolekyulu, kuwulula kuli sitiriyo-isomers, ndipo ndiwo akutoma kwa sayansi lonse - stereochemistry. Anthu ambiri osiyana nawo chilengedwe cha m'munda zimapangidwira organic, zimene tiri nazo lero. Choncho, umagwirira organic, asayansi chidwi.

Mapeto a XIX ndi XX m'ma - nthawi ya anapeza lonse makampani mankhwala, makampani utoto, kwadzidzidzi zimapangidwira. Taganizirani kutsegula, kuonetsetsa mtengo pazipita zimapangidwira organic.

1. 1881 Conrad M. ndi M. Gudtseyt apanga dzanzi, veronal ndi salicylic acid.
2. 1883 L. Knorr analandira antipyrine.
3. 1884 F. Stoll adapanga pyramidon.
4. 1869 Hyatt abale anapambana woyamba opangidwa CHIKWANGWANI.
5. 1884 D. Eastman apanga yokhuthala filimu.
6. 1890 analandira cuprammonium CHIKWANGWANI L. Depassi.
7. 1891 Charles Cross ndi anzake adapanga rayon.
8. 1897 F. Miescher ndi Buchner maziko a chiphunzitso cha makutidwe ndi okosijeni kwachilengedwenso (nayonso mphamvu selo-free anatulukira ndi michere monga biocatalysts a).
9. 1897 F. Miescher anapeza zidulo mkati.
10. Chiyambi cha XX m'ma - umagwirira latsopano mankhwala organometallic.
11. 1917 Lewis anatsegula chikhalidwe pakompyuta kumangidwa mankhwala mamolekyulu.
12. 1931 Hückel - woyambitsa wa asilikali kwadzidzidzi mu zimapangidwira.
13. Ya 1931-1933. Laymus Pauling cholakwika chiphunzitso kumveka, ndipo kenako wake Co-antchito awulule akamanena za zinthu za zochita mankhwala.
14. 1936 nayiloni apanga.
15. Ya 1930-1940. AE Arbuzov zinagwira chitukuko Organophosphorus mankhwala ndiwo maziko yopanga mapulasitiki, asatayike, ndi tizirombo.
16. 1960 Academician Nesmeyanov ndi ophunzira atalenga chakudya kupanga zasayansi.
17. 1963 Du Vinho kulandira insulin, amene ali chinthu chachikulu kutsogolo mankhwala.
18. 1968 Indian HG Qur'an anakwanitsa kufika losokonekera osavuta omwe anathandiza chinawathandiza kumvetsa n'chakuti malamulo chibadwa.

Choncho, kufunika zimapangidwira organic miyoyo ya anthu chabe m'patali. Mapulasitiki, ma polima, ulusi, penti ndi vanishi, labala, labala zipangizo PVC, polypropylene ndi polyethylene, ndi zina zambiri zinthu zamakono, popanda zomwe lero si zotheka moyo, zovuta njira anapeza ake. Mazana asayansi apanga zaka zawo ntchito mwakhama, kotero panali mbiri ambiri a chitukuko zimapangidwira organic.

Dongosolo yamakono ya mankhwala organic

Asanachite njira yaikulu ndi zovuta chitukuko zimapangidwira organic, ndipo tsopano alibe kuima. Pali oposa 10 Mill. Kugwirizana, ndi nambala iyi zikuchulukirachulukira chaka chilichonse. Choncho, pali mwadongosolo dongosolo kapangidwe ka zinthu amatipatsa umagwirira organic. Gulu la mankhwala organic kwake tebulo.

The gulu la mankhwala	mbali structural	Chilinganizo ambiri
Chimasanduka (wapangidwa yekha mpweya ndi wa hydrogen maatomu)	zimalimbikitsa (yekha Sigma kumangako.); unsaturated (Sigma ndi PI kulankhulana.); acyclic; ozungulira.	Alkanes C N H 2n + 2; Alkenes, cycloalkanes C N H 2n; Alkynes, alkadienes, C N H 2n-2; M'bwalomo C 6 H 2n-6.
Zinthu zokhala ndi ma atomu osiyana hetero mu gulu lalikulu	halogens; HA gulu (alcohols ndi phenols); grouping ROR (ethers).	R-Hal; R-o; ROR.
mankhwala carbonyl	aldehydes; ketones; quinones.	RC (H) = O
Mankhwala munali carboxyl gulu	asidi carboxylic; esters.	R-COOH; R-COOR.
Mankhwala okhala ndi sulfure, asafe kapena phosphorous mu molekyulu ndi	Kodi kukhala ozungulira kapena acyclic	-
mankhwala organometallic	Mpweya angongole mwachindunji zinthu zina, koma osati wa hydrogen	C-E
mankhwala organometallic	Mpweya amakondanso zitsulo	Ndi Ine
mankhwala heterocyclic	Mu mkombero dongosolo zozikidwa mamembala a heteroatoms ndi	-
zinthu zachilengedwe	polima mamolekyulu Large amapanga mankhwala achilengedwe	mapulotini, zidulo mkati amino zidulo, alkaloids ndi zina zotero. d.
ma polima	Zinthu ndi mkulu maselo kulemera, zimene zochokera mayunitsi monomeric	N (-RRR-)

Kuphunzira zosiyanasiyana lonse la zinthu ndi zochita zimene ilowa, ndipo ndi nkhani zimapangidwira organic lero.

Mitundu kumangidwa mankhwala zinthu organic

Pakuti mankhwala iliyonse yodziwika ankachita elektronnostaticheskie mkati mamolekyulu, zimene zili pamaso pa organics covalent kumalo ozizira ndipo sanali kumalo ozizira covalent kumangigwa. The mankhwala organometallic akhoza kupanga ofooka mogwirizana amaayoni.

Covalent nonpolar aya zimachitika pakati pa C-C mwa kuchita mamolekyulu onse organic. Covalent kumalo ozizira ankachita khalidwe kwa maatomu osiyana-nonmetal mu molekyulu ndi. Mwachitsanzo, C-Hal, CH, NKHA, CN, CP, CS. Izi zonse chifukwa umagwirira organic, amene alipo mapangidwe mankhwala.

Chakuti mankhwala ya mitunduyi organics

The mitunduyi ambiri chiwerengero cha mamembala a pawiri wotchedwa wazotsatira. mitunduyi amenewa kulibe aliyense wa chinthu zochita kupanga. Koma pamene Chidawadzera kukafola mitunduyi mu umagwirira organic, asayansi anali kukumana ndi mavuto angapo. Choyamba, kulemera kwa ambiri a iwo, mazana, ngakhalenso zikwizikwi. N'zovuta kudziwa chilinganizo wazotsatira umenewu chinthu chachikulu. Choncho, nthawi panali kugawa zimapangidwira organic monga kusanthula organic. oyambitsa ake ankaona ofufuza Liebig, Wohler, Gay-Lussac ndi Berzelius. Iwo, pamodzi ndi ntchito za A. M. Butlerova, anapeza kuli isomers - mankhwala amene ali yemweyo Mkhalidwe ndi kachulukidwe zikuchokera, koma amasiyana kapangidwe ndi katundu wa molekyulu ndi. N'chifukwa chake kapangidwe ka mankhwala organic anasonyeza lero si wazotsatira ndi structural wathunthu kapena condensed structural chilinganizo.

Chuluchi - khalidwe ndi chosiyana mbali ya ndilo umagwirira organic. mitunduyi ndi olembedwa ntchito dashes, ndi mankhwala muzikondana. mwachitsanzo, byuteni Zachepetsedwa structural chilinganizo adzakhala mawonekedwe CH ₃ - CH ₂ - CH ₂ - CH _3. Full structural chilinganizo kusonyeza zomangira zonse mankhwala pano mu molekyulu ndi.

Komanso pali njira yolemba mitunduyi maselo a mankhwala organic. Iye amayang'ana chimodzimodzi ndi wazotsatira ku zochita kupanga. Pakuti byuteni Mwachitsanzo, zidzakhala: C ₄ H _10. Ndiko kuti, chilinganizo maselo amapereka lingaliro chabe za Mkhalidwe ndi kachulukidwe zikuchokera pawiri lapansi. Kandalama zimaonetsa mgwirizano mu molekyulu, choncho angagwiritsidwe ntchito kulosera khalidwe tsogolo ndi katundu mankhwala thunthu. Awa ndi mbali kuti ali umagwirira organic. Mitunduyi zinalembedwa mu mtundu uliwonse, aliyense wa iwo ndi woona.

Mitundu mosiyanasiyana mu umagwirira organic

Pali gulu ena a mtundu wa zosiyanasiyana organic umagwirira zikuchitika. Ndipo ena classifications awa, pa malo osiyana. Taganizirani akuluakulu.

Zimagwirira ntchito mosiyanasiyana mankhwala njira kumatula ndi akapolo mapangidwe:

• kapena homolytic kwakukulu;
• heterolytic kapena amaayoni.

Zimene mitundu ya kusinthika:

• unyolo kwakukulu;
• nucleophilic aliphatic M'MALO;
• nucleophilic onunkhira M'MALO;
• Kupha anachita;
• electrophilic Kuwonjezera;
• condensation;
• cyclization;
• electrophilic M'MALO;
• rearrangement anachita.

Mwa njira ya athamangadi anachita (mwambo) ndi pa dongosolo kayendedwe zotani nthawi zina m'gulu. Awa ndi mbali yaikulu ya zochita amene ali umagwirira organic. Chiphunzitso amene akufotokoza mfundo iliyonse njira ya mankhwala anachita, chatsegulidwa mu zaka za m'ma XX, nawalimbikitsa wodzilemekeza ndiponso akadali ndi aliyense anapeza latsopano ndi kaphatikizidwe.

Tikumbukenso kuti ambiri organic zosiyanasiyana zimapangidwira chitani m'mikhalidwe kuyeza kuposa umagwirira zochita kupanga. Ichi ndi chifukwa olimba wamkulu wa mamolekyulu organic chifukwa mapangidwe mkati ndi kulumikizana mwamphamvu intermolecular. Choncho, pafupifupi munthu anachita chokwanira popanda kulera kutentha, kuthamanga kapena kugwiritsa ntchito chothandizira ndi.

The tanthauzo la makono a Chemistry Organic

Ambiri, chitukuko zimapangidwira organic ulendo ndi tima kwa zaka zingapo. Iwo anapeza ndalama yaikulu zokhudza zinthu, nyumba ndi zochita zimene iwo akhoza kujowina. Apanga mamiliyoni zothandiza ndi ankangofunika zipangizo ntchito m'minda yosiyanasiyana ya luso sayansi, ndi mafakitale. Lingaliro zimapangidwira organic lero amaona ngati chinachake chachikulu ndi chachikulu, ambiri komanso ovuta kuwamvetsetsa, wosiyanasiyana ndiponso wochititsa chidwi.

Panthawiyo, tanthauzo loyamba gawo lalikulu ili zimapangidwira anali zimene anapereka Berzelius: ndi zimapangidwira kuti amaphunzira zinthu olekanitsidwa zamoyo. Kuyambira pamenepo, nthawi zambiri zadutsa, apeza zinthu zambiri, ndipo anazindikira katetezedwe ambiri njira vnutrihimicheskih njira. Chifukwa, lero pali mfundo zosiyanasiyana zimene zimapangidwira organic. Khama kwapatsidwa: umagwirira mpweya ndi mankhwala ake, ndi njira zawo kaphatikizidwe.