Thanzi, Mankhwala
Ku Egypt mankhwala a China ndi India. Mbiri ya mankhwala
Matenda kulibe zambiri ndi anthu, kutanthauza kuti nthawi zonse anthu thandizo la katswiri wodziwa. mankhwala wakale chinafalikira pang'onopang'ono ndipo wadutsa kutali, wodzala ndi zinthu zazikulu ndi mayesero wamanyazi, nthawi zina zochokera yekha pa chipembedzo. Ochepa a kulemera kwa anthu wakale anatha yathu yozindikira mu ukapolo wa umbuli ndi kupereka kwa anthu a atulukira kwambiri m'munda wa mankhwala, anafotokoza mu Mfundo ndi, nazonse, mipukutu.
Ancient mankhwala Igupto
Ancient mankhwala Aigupto wakhala kunayambira luso madokotala ku Roma, Africa ndi ku Middle East, koma chiyambi chake ndi ku Mesopotamiya, umene uli kale mu chaka 4000 BC, anali ochiritsa za mankhwala. mankhwala akale Egypt, Chili zikhulupiriro za chipembedzo ndi kuzipenya wa thupi. Dokotala woyamba ndi woyambitsa wa Imgotepa amakhulupirira Egyptologists ena angoyamba kumene anasonyeza alikodi ake (2630-2611 BCE ...) Kwa zaka zambiri ankaona mulungu wonama. Munthuyo anali namatetule yake, Leonardo da Vinci mu Ages Middle. Kudziŵako za dongosolo anthu a Aigupto tinatsiriza pokonzera akufa - ngakhale pamenepo adadziwa kuti mtima ndi ubongo ndi ziwalo zina zofunika kwambiri.
matenda onse mankhwala ku Egypt anagawanika m'magulu awiri: zachilengedwe ndi ziwanda (zauzimu). Gulu loyamba zikuphatikizapo matenda kugwirizana ndi kuvulala wake zakudya m'thupi ndi osauka khalidwe madzi, majeremusi matumbo, kapena nyengo siili bwino. mwatcheru linaperekedwa kwa ukhondo thupi monga mwa chilamulo, munthu aliyense anali pochitika chilichonse miyezi itatu kutsuka kwa dongosolo m'mimba (enemas, emetics ndi mankhwala ofewetsa tuvi).
zimayambitsa Chauzimu ankatengedwa mizimu yakuypa, ziwanda, ndi phukusi la milungu: njira exorcism mwa strata m'munsi ya anthu mu ankafuna kwambiri ndipo pali chifukwa ansembe. Komanso ntchito zosiyanasiyana maphikidwe ndi masamba owawa - izo ankakhulupirira kuti wouluka mizimu. Total mankhwala mu nkhokwe wakale zachipatala anali pafupifupi 700, ndipo pafupifupi onse a iwo anali chiyambi chachilengedwe:
- masamba: anyezi, masiku, mphesa, makangaza, poppy, zamaluwa;
- mchere sulfure, dongo, kutsogolera nitrate ndi antimony;
- magawo a nyama m'michira yawo, makutu, mafupa grated ndi tendons, zopangitsa, nthawi zina amagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi tizilombo.
Iwo anali kale mankhwala a chowawa ndi Kasitolo mafuta, mafuta fulakesi mbewu ndi aloe.
Magwero waukulu wakale mipukutu Aigupto zachipatala ankaona kafukufuku, zolemba pa mapiramidi ndi sarcophagi, Mitembo yokhala ya anthu ndi zinyama. Nthawi yathu isanafike mu chikhalidwe choyambirira anasunga mipukutu zingapo mankhwala:
- Papyrus Brugsch - ndi mipukutu yakale ya Pediatrics. Pamafunikanso chiphunzitso, kuwauza thanzi la ana, akazi, ndi njira ya chithandizo cha matenda.
- Papyrus Ebers - limanena za matenda a ziwalo zosiyana, koma muli zitsanzo zambiri za mapemphero ndi ziwembu (maphikidwe zoposa 900 matenda m'mimba, kachitidwe kupuma ndi magazi, matenda a maso ndi makutu). Ntchito imeneyi asayansi kale ankaona buku lina lolongosola zamankhwala amachiritsira wakale.
- Kahunsky amtunduwu - zikuphatikizapo ndemanga pa matenda achikazi ndi mankhwala Chowona Zanyama, mu nkhani iyi, mosiyana ndi mipukutu ina, makamaka ufulu wa apamaliro achipembedzo.
- Papyrus Smith - olemba Zake mukukhulupirira Imgotepa. Limafotokoza 48 milandu matenda a zoopsa. Information ndi osiyana - ndi zizindikiro ndi njira kafukufuku ayamikira chithandizo.
Mankhwala ku Egypt ntchito scalpels woyamba ndi tweezers, galasi ndi catheters uterine. Izi zikusonyeza mkulu mlingo ndipo Luso madokotala-madokotala, ngakhale ali otsika luso la ochiritsa Indian.
Waukulu Indian mankhwala
Indian mankhwala akale anadalira mbiri gwero awiri: yadziko ya malamulo a Manu ndi sayansi ya Ayurveda, lomwe linachokera ku otchedwa Vedas - mabuku akale opatulika Chisansikiriti. The yolondola wathunthu retelling pepala linalembedwa ndi Indian dokotala Sushruta. Mmenemo akufotokozedwa zimayambitsa matenda (doshas atatu vutoli ndi modes kuti amapanga thupi), ayamikira zochizira matenda oposa 150 mitundu yosiyanasiyana, kuwonjezera, za 780 anafotokoza zitsamba mankhwala ndi zomera, amapereka mauthenga ntchito yawo.
Indian mwambo mankhwala nawo yesetsani pa zotsatira zawo pa thupi:
- kusanza ndi mankhwala ofewetsa tuvi;
- popatsana ndi ululu;
- sweatshops;
- zilimbikitse chimbudzi;
- mankhwala (ntchito ngati mankhwala ochititsa opaleshoni).
Anatomical kudziwa ochiritsa anali insufficiently akupangidwa koma madokotala anapambulwa thupi 500 minofu 24 mitsempha mafupa 300 ndi ziwiya 40 kutsogolera zimene pamapeto, lagawidwa nthambi 700, 107 mankhwala olowa ndi zoposa 900 Mitsemphayi. A zambiri zosonyeza kuti anali linaperekedwa kwa maganizo odwala - Ayurveda amaona kuti ambiri a matenda onse amachokera ku wonongeka ya ubongo. chidziwitso champhamvu - onse mankhwala wakale wa India - anachita ochiritsa m'dziko lino wotchuka kwambiri m'mayiko ena.
Development wa mankhwala China wakale
Ancient mankhwala East unachokera mu m'zaka za zana lachinayi BC, mmodzi wa Mfundo yoyamba pa matenda ankaona "Huang Di Nei Jing" ndipo Huang - ndi dzina la anayambitsa malangizo Chinese mankhwala. The Chinese, monga Amwenye, kuti munthu ali mbali zisanu, vutoli wa imbaenda ku matenda osiyanasiyana, ndi mwatsatanetsatane ndi Zakhala zikunenedwa mu "Nei Jing", omwe m'zaka za 8 rewrote Wang Bing.
лунь», повествующего о методах лечения лихорадок различного типа, а Хуа То – хирург, начавший использовать швы в полостных операциях и анестезию опием, аконитом и коноплей. Chzhan Chzhun Jing - dokotala Chinese, wolemba wa lonena "Shang Han Lun tsza bin", nkhani za njira ya chithandizo cha mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya malungo, ndi Hua Tuo - opaleshoni, anayamba ntchito sutures maopareshoni m'mimba ndi ochititsa dzanzi bongo, aconite ndi cannabis.
Zochizira matenda osiyanasiyana madokotala kale ntchito camphor, adyo, ginger wodula bwino lomwe ndi lemongrass, mchere thanthwe makamaka kuwalandira sulfure ndi Mercury, magnesium ndi antimony. Koma mu malo oyamba anali, ndithudi, Ginseng - muzu wa izi kulemekezedwa ndipo opangidwa pa maziko ake angapo mankhwala osiyana.
kunyada Special madokotala Chinese anali zimachitika matenda: kuwanda kwa kuchuluka kugunda kwa mtima kusonyeza mantha dongosolo wokangalika, ndi ofooka likukulira M'malo mwake, umboni za kusowa ake a ntchito. madokotala Chinese kusiyanitsa mitundu yoposa 20 zimachitika. Iwo anazindikira kuti chiwalo chilichonse ndipo aliyense ndondomeko m'thupi zikugwirizananso ndi kugunda, ndi kusintha mfundo zingapo zapitazi, mukhoza osati chimatanthauza matenda a anthu, komanso kulosera zotsatira zake. Wang Shu Iye amene analemba "Treatise pa zimachitika 'mwatsatanetsatane zonse anafotokoza.
Monga China - malo kutema mphini ndi moxibustion mfundo. malemba mbiri kulankhula za asing'anga Bian-quo ndi Fu Wen, wolemba wa ndemanga pa njira izi. Ntchito zawo amafotokoza mazana mfundo biologically yogwira pa thupi la munthu anakhudzidwa amene akhoza kwathunthu kuchiza matenda aliwonse.
Yekha ofooka kugwirizana mu wakale mankhwala Chinese - ndi opaleshoni. Mu lakumwamba Ufumu pafupifupi ntchito njira ya chithandizo cha wovulala (bala malo chabe aikidwa pakati pa slats miwiri, mbukhomerwa) sali ankachita cupping ndi amputation.
atate wa mankhwala
Anthu ankaona kuti a Hippocrates (Greek. Ippokratis), akale Greek dokotala mu m'badwo wa 17, amene ankakhala mu 460 BC ndipo chinali chiyambi cha chitukuko cha mankhwala mu Roma. Wotchuka lonjezo mankhwala pamaso poganiza ofesi - "Hippocratic lumbira" - izi ndi brainchild wake. Bambo wa dokotala wamkulu Heraclides analinso ndi wasayansi kwambiri ndi Fenareta mayi kunali mzamba. Makolo anga anayesetsa kwa zaka makumi awiri mwana wawo anali ndi ulemerero wa dokotala wabwino, ndipo analandira amayambira ansembe, popanda zomwe mchitidwe wabwino m'munda wa mankhwala sikungakhoze kukhala funso.
Hippocrates pofunafuna mankhwala osiyanasiyana bwino kuti anayenda maiko ambiri East, ndipo atabwerera kunyumba, anakhazikitsa woyamba maphunziro a zachipatala, kuika chapatsogolo sayansi, osati chipembedzo.
Cholowa kulenga ya namatetule izi kwambiri moti wofalitsa okhazikika ntchito zake Charterius anakhala makumi yosindikiza (!) Zaka wake. Koposa zana ntchito zake pamodzi limodzi "Hippocratic Collection" komanso "Aphorisms" akali kufunika kwambiri.
Madokotala otchuka kwambiri dziko lakale
A zambiri asing'anga wamkulu wa mankhwala akale mu chinachake izi sayansi awoawo, kupereka makolo malingaliro awo ya kusinkhasinkha, kuonetsetsa ndi kafukufuku.
1. Dioscorides, Greek dokotala 50 m'ma AD. e., woyambitsa lonena za "Materia Medica" ndi buku akutsogola mankhwala mpaka m'ma 16.
2. Klavdiy Galen - Aroma zachilengedwe wasayansi, wolemba ntchito zambiri pa mankhwala njira ya ntchito yawo ndi kupanga kukonzekera izi. Onse madzi ndi mowa tinctures, decoctions ndi akupanga ku zomera zosiyanasiyana akadali dzina la "mankhwala". Ndipo Iye anayamba kuchita mayesero nyama.
3. Haaruna al-dzina lake Rashid - Arab wolamulira, woyamba kumanga chipatala pagulu Baghdad.
4. Paracelsus (1493-1541) - Swiss dokotala, amene amaonedwa tate wa mankhwala amakono mankhwala. Kuweruza Galen ndi mankhwala onse wakale wonse, kuganizira mofatsa operewera.
5. Li Shizhen - katswiri mu munda wa mankhwala wa East Ancient sing'anga Chinese kwa zaka za m'ma 16, woyambitsa "chikhazikitso cha mankhwala." The ntchito wopangidwa mwa magawo 52, pafupifupi 2000 limafotokoza medicaments, makamaka chiyambi mbewu. wolemba kwambiri amatsutsa ntchito mapiritsi Mercury ofotokoza.
6. Muhammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (865-925) - ndi Persian wasayansi, zachilengedwe, iye ankaona mpainiya m'munda wa maganizo ndi kuwerenga maganizo. Wolemba sing'anga chapadera wa wotchuka "Al-Hawi" - buku mabuku pa mankhwala, amene atsegula dziko ndizosowa pochiza matenda a maso matenda achikazi ndi obstetrics. Razi wasonyeza kuti kutentha - zimachitika kuti matenda.
7. Avicenna (Ibn Sina) - wanzeru nthawi yake. Anachokera ku Uzbekistan, mlembi "Canon of Medicine" - buku limene zaka mazana angapo, madokotala ena ophunzitsidwa luso zachipatala. Iye ankakhulupirira kuti matenda alionse akhoza kuchiritsidwa ndi kudya zakudya zopatsa nthanzi ndi moyo zolimbitsa.
8. Asclepiades wa ku Bituniya - dokotala Greek amene ankakhala 1 m'ma BC. Woyambitsa wa mankhwala thupi (physiotherapy, kutikita) ndi Dietetics, wotchedwa m'nthawi ndi Amlowam'malo kuti kaonedwe pakati pa thanzi la thupi ndi mzimu. Anatenga njira yoyamba mankhwala maselo, pakuti nthawi chinachake wosangalatsa.
9. Sun Simiao - Chinese dokotala Tian mafumu, analemba ntchito 30-buku. "Mfumu ya mankhwala" - dzina la namatetule amene wapanga chopereka kwambiri kutukula zokhudza zachipatala. Iye ananena kufunika kwa zakudya ndi mix lamanja la mankhwala. Kutulukira onga - izo ndi ngongole yake.
Monga kalelo kuposa ankachitira
Mankhwala a dziko wakale, ngakhale inde onse madokotala otchuka, wakhala wokongola zozizwitsa. Komabe, nokha. Nawa ochepa zosangalatsa za njira zochizira
1. Njira chiopsyezo ndi matenda kunyansidwa ankachita mwakhama ku Babulo wakale: kuti matenda muna mamuna, iye anali kudyetsedwa ndi madzi osowa zinyalala, malobvu Iye, nampatsa cuffs. Izi "mankhwala" Nthawi zambiri kumayambitsa matenda atsopano (zomwe sizodabwitsa).
2. Mu Egypt pamene Mfumu Hammurabi mankhwala anali ndithu malonda oopsa, monga m'modzi wa malamulo a mfumu mchiritsi analonjeza imfa ngati mtima wake afa pa tebulo ya opareshoni. Choncho mfiti ntchito ndi mapemphero yatchedwa pa mapale 40.
3. Ansembe Aigupto anasiya mtima kugona mu kachisi, wotchedwa amayenera kuoneka m'kulota kwa iye ndi kulengeza njira mankhwala, komanso tchimo umene adapachikidwa matenda.
4. Palibe zochepa chidwi ndi opaleshoni Ancient Greece. Apa ife ankachitika ulaliki wonse wa ntchito, imene adokotala ankafotokozedwa ananamizira mulungu wa mankhwala Asclepius. Nthawi zina mu zochita odwala anamwalira - kwambiri kwa tirades wodzitukumula yaitali kuposa satha ku phiri dokotala.
5. ambiri anayala "khunyu" matenda ankachitira wogulitsa zozunguza ubongo, nsaluzi zinkangokhala ndi chowawa.
6. Egypt ndi Mesopotamia zambiri mokhomerera mabowo chigaza ndi (zina zambiri) kuti tichepetse mtima wa migraine chifukwa cha mzimu wakuipa.
7. TB amaliona ndi mankhwala, zopangidwa kuwala nkhandwe ndi njoka nyama, ankawaviika bongo.
8. limathetseratu vuto lina lililonse ankaona theriac (chakumwa 70 zigawo) ndi mwala aumunthu.
Ages Middle: kuchepa kwa mankhwala
Chuma chofunika kwambiri cha mankhwala mu Ages Middle anali oyamba a chiphaso mokakamizidwa kwa mankhwala: chilamulo woyamba adakwatira mfumu ya Sicily, Roger II, ndipo kenako anatola England, kupangidwa mu 15 m'ma munalidi gulu la madokotala ndi ometa (amene nthawi anachita magazi m'mitsempha odwala) ndi France ndi College of St. Como. Tinayamba kulumikizana bwino ndi maonekedwe a chiphunzitso cha matenda opatsirana ndi makhalidwe zaumoyo. GI De Sholyak, okongoletsedwa dokotala wa zaka za m'ma 14, ali mwachangu analimbikitsa kupewa "charlatans" kuchitira anthu, iye akufuna njira yatsopano pochita zinthu ndi fractures (samatha ndi kulemera, ntchito nsalu gulaye, suturing m'mbali mwa mabala lotseguka).
Mu Middle Ages ankadziwa zonse njala, mbewu osauka, kukakamiza anthu kudya zakudya zisawonongeke, ndi "mpatuko wa thupi choyera" anali mu doghouse lapansi. mfundozi awiri anathandiza kuti chitukuko cha matenda opatsirana: malungo, makoswe ndi nthomba, chifuwa chachikulu ndi khate. Wolimba kukhulupirira machiritso zimatha "hallows" ndi cantrip (momwe ochiritsa kudziwa chi anakana kwathunthu) chikwiyire chitukuko kuposa matenda omwe anayesera kuchitira akuguba chipembedzo ndi ulaliki. The amafa ndi kangapo kuposa mlingo kubadwa ndi moyo amayembekezeka kawirikawiri kuposa zaka makumi atatu.
Mphamvu ya chipembedzo mankhwala
Mu China ndi India, makamaka kukhulupirira milungu sikusokoneza chitukuko zokhudza zachipatala: patsogolo zochokera kuzipenya la munthu, mmene zomera pa chikhalidwe chake, anali njira otchuka wa yogwira analytic zinachitikira. Ku Ulaya, pa mwake, zikhulupiriro zamizimu, kuopa mkwiyo wa Mulungu kudula Mphukira zoyesayesa zonse asayansi ndi madokotala kupulumutsa anthu ku umbuli.
Kuzunzidwa, kutukwana, ndi yokopa ndi mpatuko anali lonse chachikulu: wasayansi aliyense amene anayesa kulankhula mokomera chifukwa ndi zotsutsana ndi chifuniro cha Mulungu kwa machiritso, anazunzidwa ndi mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya Kuphedwa (zinali ambiri Mallu kufala) - aopseze anthu wamba. Kuphunzira thunthu anthu ankaona tchimo la kuimfa umene chilango anali kapadera.
Komanso, ndi drawback yaikulu inali njira ankaonetsetsa mankhwala ndi kuphunzitsa sukulu osowa mankhwala: abstracts onse ayenera mosayang'anira analandira pa chikhulupiriro, nthawi zina kukhala pa nthaka olimba ndi chosunga kukana zinachitikira nazo ndiponso kulephera kutsatira mfundo za zochitika zothandiza pa "ayi" kwa zambiri zomwe wa namatetule modernity.
Kodi madokotala ophunzitsidwa kalelo?
Masukulu woyamba zachipatala China anaonekera okha 6 m'ma AD, pamaso pa luso kuchiritsa munaupereka kwa mphunzitsi kuti Kamwana pakamwa. boma lomwe sukulu choyamba chinamasulidwa mu 1027, mphunzitsi wake kutsogolera anali Wang Wei ndi.
Mu India, njira kufala m'kamwa kwa mphunzitsi wophunzira mpaka m'ma 18, i kusankha ankalimbikira kwambiri: dokotala anali kumusonyeza iye chitsanzo cha moyo wathanzi ndi mkulu mlingo wa nzeru, mudziwa bwino zamoyo ndi zimapangidwira, Choncho motsogozedwa zomera mankhwala ndi yokonza njira zamdziko kuti anatsanziradi. Ukhondo ndi Udongo anali mu malo oyamba.
Mu Egypt, kusintha ansembe ophunzitsidwa mu akachisi, pamene kawirikawiri amagwiritsidwa ntchito chilango ogwirika kwa ana wosasamala. Limodzi ndi mankhwala anali kupita kuphunzira Zilembozo zinkasonyeza apamwamba, aliyense dokotala ophunzira a ku Yofuna Ufulu Wodzilamulira makamaka ndi mpingo, umene analandira amalipiritsa m'tsogolo zochizira wodwalayo.
Misa mankhwala maphunziro pamlingo waukulu inayamba mu Greece wakale ndi lagawidwa nthambi ziwiri:
1. Croton zachipatala sukulu. lingaliro Aika anali kutsatira nkhani yolembedwa: Health - ichi bwino zotsutsana ndi matenda kuchitiridwa kwenikweni zosiyana (zowawa - lokoma, ozizira - ofunda). Mmodzi mwa ophunzira a sukulu uyu anali Akmeon, anatulukira dziko ngalande khutu ndi misempha chamawonedwe.
2. Sukulu ya Kinido. chidziwitso chake zofunika anali ofanana ndi ziphunzitso za Ayurveda: thupi lapangidwa ndi zinthu zosiyanasiyana, ndi vutoli kuti kumayambitsa matenda. The sukulu ukulimbiralimbirabe opaleshoni nthawi ya madokotala Aigupto, choncho anapanga chiphunzitso cha zizindikiro ndi matenda. Evrifon, ndi mwana wa sukulu imeneyi, anakhalapo m'nthawi ya Hippocrates.
Lumbira dokotala
Kwa nthawi yoyamba lumbiro linalembedwa pa pepala m'zaka za m'ma 3 BC ndi Hippocrates, ndi pamaso kuti kwa nthawi yaitali opatsirana pakamwa ku mibadwomibadwo. Amakhulupirira kuti poyamba ake anati Asclepius.
Modern Hippocratic lumbira kale kutali kuchokera ku chiyambi: mawu ake mobwerezabwereza anasintha malingana ndi nthawi m'mayiko nthawi otsiriza kwambiri pamfundo mu 1848, pamene Geneva analengeza Baibulo latsopano mawu. Pafupifupi theka la lemba yathyoledwa:
- lonjezo konse kuchita mimba ndi njira castration;
- m'mikhalidwe ayi kumaliza;
- lonjezo konse kugonana ndi wodwalayo;
- Mulimonse mmene ayenera kusiya ulemu, kupewa zochita lamulo;
- zopeza zawo chifukwa moyo kupereka kwa mphunzitsi kapena sukulu, wophunzitsidwa dokotala choncho.
Zinthu izi limatisonyeza mmene ano mankhwala kuchepetsa khalidwe zikuyenela bala kwa dokotala ngati munthu kwambiri mwauzimu, kusiya kokha ntchito zikuluzikulu - kuthandiza osowa.
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